Unit I

CULTIVATION OF TOMATO

Botanical Name: Lycopersicon esculentum

Family: Solanaceae

Chromosome number: 2n = 24

Origin: Peru

INTRODUCTION

            Tomato is one of the most popular and widely grown vegetable in the world ranking second in importance to potato in many countries. The fruits are eaten raw or cooked. Tomato has great potential for processing. There are various processed products which are prepared from the tomato like tomato sauce, tomato puree, ketchup, juice, soup and powder etc. This is also called as poor man’s orange as rich source of vitamin C.

Area and Production

Because of its wider adaptability and versatility, tomato is grown throughout the world either in the indoors or outdoors. India ranks second in the production of tomato after china in the world. In India Andhra Pradesh is leading in the production according to the NHB database (2010-2011). China leads worldwide and accounts for 47.14% of the total world production and India ranks second and account for 12.44% of world production.

S.No	State	Production(000Tonnes)	% Share
1	Andhra Pradesh	5926.21	35.22
2	Karnatka	1756.70	10.44
3	Orissa	1367.17	8.13
4	W.B	1063.65	6.32
5	Bihar	1056.24	5.8
6	Gujrat	978.44	4.39
7	Maharashtra	738.00	3.73

 

Export quality tomatos are produced in the Nasik district of Maharashtra.

Taxonomy:

 Genus Lycopersicon is further divided into two sub genera i.e. Eulycopersicon and Eriopersicon.

1. Eulycopersicon : Characterised by red-fruited edible species with carotenoid pigmentation and annual. Cultivated tomato esculentum and pimpinellifolium are included in this group.
2. Eriopersicon: Green fruited species with anthocyanin pigmentation belong to this group.

Botany

            Cultivated tomato is annual herb, 70cm to 200cm tall, erect with thick solid stem or spreading, coarsely hairy with strong characteristics odour. Strong tap root with dense fibrous and adventitious roots are formed. According to the growth habit tomato is of two types i.e. determinate and indeterminate.

1. Determinate: Self topping, main stem is terminate with a flower cluster, inflorescence occurs most frequently in almost every internode.
2. Indeterminate: Inflorescence cluster occur at every third internode and the main axis continue to grow indefinitely.

Root:	Vigorous tap root system that grows to a depth of 50 cm or more. The main root produces dense lateral and adventitious roots.
Stem:	Growth habit ranges between erect and prostrate. It grows to a height of 2-4 m. The stem is solid, coarse, hairy and glandular.
Leaf:	Spirally arranged, 15-50 cm long and 10-30 cm wide. Leaflets are ovate to oblong, covered with glandular hairs. Small pinnate appear between larger leaflets
Flower:	Bisexual, regular and 1.5-2 cm in diameter. They grow opposite or between leaves. Calyx tube is short and hairy, sepals are persistent. Usually 6 petals up to 1 cm in length yellow and reflexed When mature. 6 stamens, anthers are bright yellow in colour surrounding. The style with an elongated sterile tip. Ovary is superior and with 2-9 compartments. Mostly self- but partly also cross pollinated. Bees and bumblebees are the most important pollinators.
Fruit:	Fleshy berry, globular to oblate in shape and 2-15 cm in diameter. The immature fruit is green and hairy. Ripe fruits range from yellow, orange to red. It is usually round, smooth or furrowed.
Seeds:	Numerous, kidney or pear shaped. They are hairy, light brown 3-5mm long and 2-4 mm wide. The embryo is coiled up in the endosperm. Approximate weight of 1000 seeds is 2.5 – 3.5 g.

 

Soil

            Tomato is grown in many type of soils from sandy to heavy clay. A well-drained, fairly light fertile loam with a fair moisture holding capacity is ideal for tomato. Even poor and medium quality land produces good early crop, if managed properly. Tomato crop prefers a soil reaction ranging from pH 6.0 to 7.0. In acidic soils, liming is beneficial. Soils with very high organic matter content, like peat soils, are less suitable due to their high water holding capacity and nutrient deficiencies. The most important is soil should be well drained means there should not be water logging condition.

Climate and Temperature

            Tomato being a warm season crop requires relatively long season to produce a profitable crop. It is highly susceptible for frost. Optimum temperature is 20⁰C- 24⁰C, mean temperature below 16⁰C and above 27⁰C are not desirable. Lycopene which is responsible for red colour is highest at 21⁰-24⁰C while the production of this pigment drops off rapidly above 27^oC. Tomato plants react to temperature variation during the growth cycle for seed germination, seedling growth, flower and fruit set and fruit quality. If cool or hot weather spells persist during flowering, pollen production will be low. This will influence fruit formation. Frost will kill the plants. To avoid frost damage, it is best to wait until the winter is definitely over before sowing. Light intensity affects the colour of the leaves, fruit set and fruit colour. In tropical lowlands, the minimum temperature at night is also important. Temperatures below 21 °C can cause fruit abortion.

Temperature requirement for different growth stages of tomato:

Stage	Temperature oC
Seed germination	Minimum	Maximum	Optimum range
	11	34	16-29
Seedling growth	18	32	21-24
Fruit set	18	30	20-24
Red colour	10	30	20-24

 

Preparation and planting

Land preparation

Ploughing is necessary to prepare the land for a new crop. It improves the structure and water holding capacity. In areas where water is a limiting factor, ploughing enhances water conservation as well. Fallow ploughing the land after harvesting the previous crop improves the soil structure and water-holding capacity. It also helps to reduce soil-borne pests and diseases by exposing the soil to the hot sun. Deep ploughing is necessary to break an impermeable hard subsoil layer (ploughing pan), remove the weeds and bring the land to fine tilth. It also encourages root growth. It is often necessary to harrow two times, breaking the clods and removing crop residues to level the land. Cultivating tomato on raised beds, ridges or furrows facilitates drainage of water and irrigation. Despite this, more than 60% of the crop is still cultivated using flood irrigation.

 

 

 Seedlings

Tomatoes are normally transplanted because much better results are gained when seedlings are raised in a nursery. Two methods of raising seedling in nurseries can be used:

• sowing in seedbed
•  sowing in seedling tray (used by many farmers in Southeast Asia)

Smaller quantities of seed are needed, the seedlings can be selected for growth and health before planting in the field, the plantlets can be well protected and the planting distance is more regular than after sowing directly in the field.

Nursery preparation

The seedbed should be 60-120 cm wide and 20-25 cm high. The length depends on the number of seedlings wanted. Remove clods of earth and stubble. Add well decomposed farmyard manure and fine sand. Bring the seedbed to fine tilth. To raise a sufficient amount of plants for one hectare, 150-200 g seeds should be sown on 250 m2 of seedbed. Draw lines, 10-15 cm apart, over the length of the seedbed. Sow the seeds thinly spaced on the lines and press gently. Cover the seeds with fine sand and straw. Water the seedbeds twice a day to ensure sufficient moisture for germination. After germination the straw must be removed.

Transplanting

In north India for spring summer crop the seeds are sown in late November and transplanted in the second fortnight of January. For autumn crop in north India seeds are sown in July-August and transplanted in August-September. In hilly areas seeds are sown in March-April with transplanting in April-May. In south India three crops are taken and sowing is done during January-February, June-July, and October-November. Transplant the seedling to the field 3 to 6 weeks after sowing. A week before transplanting, seedlings should be hardened by reducing the application of water, but 12-14 hours before they are taken out of the seedbed they should be thoroughly watered again to avoid excessive damage to the roots. Seedlings of 15-25 cm tall with 3-5 true leaves are most suitable for transplanting. Transplanting should be done in the afternoon or on a cloudy day to reduce the transplanting shock. Water the plants immediately once they have been transplanted. When removing the seedlings, keep a large clump of soil attached to the roots to prevent them from being damaged. Spacing between plants and rows depends on the cultivar growth habit, soil type, cropping system and also whether the plants are to be supported by stakes or left on the ground. The common spacing is 50 cm between plants and75 - 100 cm between rows. If the tomatoes are to be supported by sticks, then the distances between rows can be decreased to 20-40 cm. Make the holes for the plants deep enough so that the lowest leaves are at ground level. Press the soil firmly around the root, and water around the base of the plant to settle the soil. After transplanting, mulch can be placed on the ground around the plants to protect them from heat during the first five days. Mulch is composed of plant remains (e.g. rice-straw or sorghum-straw) used to cover the soil to control weed growth, prevent erosion and conserve water. Care should be taken not to wet the lowest leaves, as this can stimulate the growth of mould. A more advanced method is to put plastic mulch on the beds and punch holes in the plastic before planting. The transplanted plants should be protected from heat during the first five days, e.g. by covering them with large leaves.

Type	spacing
Indeterminate	90cmx30cm
Determinate	60cmx45cm

Varieties

            There are large number of varieties has been developed by various organizations of the country. These varieties have desirable attributes like earliness, high yield, good fruit size, fruit colour and disease resistance.

1. Arka Saurabh : developed by selection, plants are semi-determinate in growth. Fruits are thick fleshed, firm round, medium large in size, fruits have good transport quality, which is good for both fresh market and processing.
2. Arka Vikas : also developed through selection from a variable population of American variety Tip Top introduced at IIHR Bangalore. Plants are indeterminate. This variety does well in moisture stress condition.
3. Pusa Uphar : plants are indeterminate, thick, stemmed. It bear in cluster of 2-3 fruit. Fruits are medium in size, round shaped, deep red skin colour thick pericarp. Fruits are good for processing.
4. Hissar Anmol : this is develop by interspecific cross between L. esculentumX L. hirsutum f. glabratum. This variety is found resistance to leaf curl virus. Plants are determinate and fruits are flattish round, medium in size and red colour.
5. Hissar Arun : this is an early variety developed by HAU Hissar through hybridization of Pusa Early Dwarf X K 1 followed by selection. Plants are determinate, this is popular as early and main crop in northern plains.
6. Hissar Lalita : also developed through hybridization. It is a semi- determinate variety which bears fruits in medium to large size. This is resistance to root knot nematode.
7. Punjab Chhuhara : plants are bushy determinate, fruits are medium sized, pear shaped, firm, fleshy, thick pericarp. This is suitable for long distance transportation.
8. Pusa Ruby : developed through hybridisation and a cross between Sioux X Improved Meeruti. Plants are indeterminate. This is an early variety and having 25-30 fruits per plant.
9. Roma : this is an introduction from America, fruits are small sized and pear shaped having deep red colour. Plants are small with determinate growth habit.

There are several other varieties like Pusa Sheetal, Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Early Dwarf, Punjab Kesari, Pant Bahar etc. other varieties like Pusa Hybrid 2, Pusa Hybrid 4, Arka Vardan, Avinash 2 etc are the F1 hybrids.

 

Nutrition requirement:

            100-125kgN:50-70kgP:50-60kgK/ha                                                                                                                                                   

 Nutrient requirement vary from region to region and soil to soil and about 25 tonnes of FYM/ha is applied, P and K is applied as a basal dose along with half of nitrogen and the remaining nitrogen is applied in the split doses as foliar spray. Application of 20-30kg/ha of borax and 0.5% of Zn is beneficial for yield and good quality of fruit.

Irrigation      

            Tomato crop require adequate moisture throughout its growing period. First irrigation is done soon after transplanting. Too much water at the time of transplanting and before fruit set is detrimental causing blossoms off. When the fruits are small, frequent watering is require in the root zone. Irrigate the crop at an interval of 3-4 days in summer and 10-15 days in winter. A long dry spell followed by heavy irrigation leads to cracking of fruits.

Harvesting

            In indeterminate varieties, fruits can be harvested 70-100 days after planting. While determinate varieties harvested 70 days, depending upon the environmental conditions. The stage of maturity for harvest of tomato depends upon the purpose for which they are used and distance covered to reach the market. Following stages of maturity recognized in case of tomato:

      I.        Immature: Before the seeds fully developed and before the jelly like substances surrounding the seeds were formed.

    II.        Mature green: The fully grown fruit with a brownish ring at stemscar, removal of calyx, light green colour at blossom end changed to yellowish green and seeds surrounded by jelly like substance filling the seed cavity.

   III.        Turning: ¼ of the surface at blossom end shows pink(breaker stage)

  IV.        Pink: ¾ of the surface shows pink.

   V.        Hard ripe: Nearly all red or pink with firm flesh.

  VI.        Over ripe: fully coloured and soft.

            Tomatoes are normally picked at 4-day intervals during warm season and at weekly interval in winters. On an average in India, under field condition, a normal tomato crop produced 16-25t/ha, hybrids often produced 60-80t/ha.

Physiological Disorders : 

            Physiological disorders does not involve any host parasite interaction but these are because of physiological changes in the plant system and these changes mainly due to abiotic factors like temperature, rainfall, soil temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture etc. There are several physiological disorders found in tomato and these are as follows:

1. 1.    Blossom end rot:

            This is a very common and destructive disorder. Lesions appear in the fruit while it is green. Water-soaked spots appeared at the point of attachment of the senescent petal. The affected portion of the fruit becomes sunken, leathery and dark coloured.

Causes

a)    Increasing amount of nitrogen

b)    Deficiency of calcium (below 0.2%)

c)    Sudden change in the rate of transpiration

Control

a)    Single foliar spray of 0.5% calcium chloride solution at the time of fruit development.

b)    Proper level of moisture and nitrogen should be maintained.

 

1. 2.    Catface

            The fruits with catface characterise by the distortion of blossom end of the fruit. Such fruits have ridges, furrows, indentation and blotches. It resembles blossom end rot.

Causes

a)    Abnormal growing conditions during formation of the blossom appeared to cause distortion of growth of the cells of the pistil.

b)    The cells in the blossom end of the ovary dried and turned dark to form a leathery blotch at the end of the fruit.

1. 3.    Puffiness

            As the fruit reaches about 2/3^rd normal size, outer wall continue to develop normally but remaining internal tissue growth retard. As a result fruit become light in weight, lack firmness and are partially filled. This is due to non-fertilization of the ovule, embryo abortion after the normal fertilization and necrosis of vascular and placental tissue.

Causes

a)    High or low temperature.

b)    Low soil moisture.

1. 4.    Sunscald

            Exposed fruits of tomato either green or nearing ripeness scalded rapidly during extreme heat. The tissue has blistered water-soaked appearance.

1. 5.    Cracking

            Cracking of the surface of the fruit at the stem end is a common occurrence and often result in large losses. Cracking is of two types, one which radiate from the stem end and other develop concentrically around the shoulder of the fruit. Radial cracking is more common and causes more losses. And this is due to boron deficiency and this can be prevented by the application of borax.

                          

                Radial Cracking                                       Concentric Cracking

 

            Other disorder like Gold fleck, internal blackening, and low temperature injury also occur in tomato.

 Protected cultivation

            Tomato being a popular vegetable is in constant demand throughout the year. However, in cold areas it is not possible to grow tomato in open field conditions during the winter season. . Protected cultivation means growing something under protection and provides protection from unfavourable climatic condition. This is an intensive type of cultivation and costly also but the cost is compensated by the high yield. Protected cultivation also called offseason cultivation and through early or offseason crops farmer can get more prices of his crop.

Greenhouse environment

Temperature

Temperature should be maintained 15-22^oC, a rise in soil temperature from 14.0-21.8^oC may increase the total yield up to 47% in spring under warm air condition. Higher temperature found to be detrimental for plant growth and development. Higher temperature leads poor growth and poor fruit development of fruits under greenhouse cultivation. Temperature should be maintained at 25-27⁰C and this can be maintained in summers by sprinkling water to increase RH, providing shade nets and also through opening of side and top ventilation in medium cost polyhouses and  in high tech. polyhouses everything is automatic.

Light

 Light is very important for growth and development as well as for quality fruits. During winter season there is no need to go for shade nets but for hotter months of the year the shade nets are very important to control the light. The shade nets like 50%, 75%etc are used those allow 50% and 25% light to enter inside the polyhouses.

CO₂

The enrichment of atmosphere by two or three- fold CO₂ increases tomato yield. Plant enriched with CO₂ in greenhouse show significant increase in fresh and dry weight and total yield. Under normal condition the atmosphere contain 300ppm of CO₂, the greenhouse plants can even utilizes 3-4 times higher amount of CO₂ i.e. 1000ppm.

Humidity

It is very important to maintain the relative humidity under greenhouse, dehumidifiers are used for regulating the RH inside the greenhouse. The humidity affect the crop growth, development, yield and quality of fruits. Increased humidity also results in diseases and pest attack so it is very important to regulate the humidity.

Cultivars

As this is an intensive type and costly cultivation F1 hybrids are used under polyhouses for having higher returns. In India various F1 hybrids from private sector as well as public sectors are used for polyhouses production. F1 hybrids like Naveen, Avinash, Rupali, Manisha are popular among the farmers.

Spacing

For seedlings transplanted in July, early fruit yield and total marketable yield is higher at 50,000 plants/ha but for seedlings planted in February, fruit yield is higher at 40,000 plants/ha. And transplanting of seedling is beneficial when transplanted in March or early April.

Fertilization

The nutrients are supplied in the form of chemicals. It is possible to supply nutrients in regulated amount with irrigation and this is called fertigation. The fertigation allows to apply the nutrients exactly and uniformly only to the wetted root volume, where the active roots are concentrated. This remarkably increases the efficiency in the application of the fertilizer, which allows reducing the amount of applied fertilizer. This not only reduces the production costs but also lessens the potential of groundwater pollution caused by the fertilizer leaching. Fertigation allows to adapt the amount and concentration of the applied nutrients in order to meet the actual nutritional requirement of the crop throughout the growing season. In order to make a correct planning of the nutrients supply to the crop according to its physiological stage, we must know the optimal daily nutrient consumption rate during the growing cycle that results in maximum yield and production quality. And for frtigation we use liquid type of fertilizers, in India 19:19:19 is most popular among the farmers to use in the polyhouses crops and this can be applied with irrigation water at every alternate day for good quality of crop

Irrigation

Tomato requires an ample supply of moisture in greenhouse. Water stress leads to stunted growth of plant and drooping of flowers. Under polyhouses irrigation is applied by sprinklers and drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is becoming popular, the yield and quality of fruits is good under drip irrigation system.

 

Pinching and training

There are few hard and fast rules in tomato pruning, and many varying opinions.  Good pruning achieves the optimum balance between vegetative growth and fruit production.  Pruning will impact fruit size, fruit quality and yield, so it is important to strike the right balance between reducing vigorous foliage and stripping the plant.  Good pruning helps increase fruit size and enhance earliness.  However, pruning too heavily can reduce yield and increase problems with sunburn, blossom end rot, and catfacing. Training of plants is essential for greenhouse cultivation. Tomato plant enables to support itself on its stem and creep on the ground. The usual method is to put the strings twined all along the stem to be huge from supports above. Plants may be trained on two stem and three stem system of training.

Diseases

Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum)

This bacterium is especially common in humid tropical lowlands, where temperatures are relatively high. It causes bacterial wilt, which is a soil-borne disease. The first symptoms in infected plants are wilting of terminal leaves, followed in 2-3 days by a sudden and permanent wilt, but there is no yellowing. Adventitious roots may develop on the main stems. The vascular system in the stem of infected plants appears light brown in transverse or longitudinal section; it becomes a darker brown at a late stage of infection. The pith and the cortex near the soil line also become brown when the plant is completely wilted. A white, milky stream of bacteria will ooze from xylem elements when stem sections of infected plants are suspended in water. The bacteria survive in the soil and enter roots of young plants through wounds made by transplanting, cultivation, insects or certain nematodes. The bacteria are spread through irrigation water, soil movement, or moving infected plants (e.g. when transplanting).

The following measures will help to control bacterial wilt:

• Use tolerant/resistant varieties.
• Avoid infested fields. Once the soil has been infected, do not grow Solanaceae for at least 7 years. Rotate with cereal crops.
• Do not injure roots or leaves, so be careful during transplantation and prune as little as possible.
• Make sure the field is well drained.
• If necessary, sterilise the soil

Bacterial spot (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv vesicatoria)

This bacterium is distributed worldwide, but it is more severe in the tropics and subtropics. It is spread via seed, insects, raindrops, infected plant debris and Solanaceae weeds. Heavy rains and high humidity favour disease development. The bacteria enter the plant through the stomata and wounds. The pathogen affects leaves, fruits and stems. Small spots appear on the leaves and on the fruit of infected plants. These spots are generally brown and circular. Leaves turn yellow and drop off. Elliptical lesions are found on stems and petioles.

The following measures can help in controlling bacterial spot:

• Use pathogen-free seeds or transplants. Give hot water treatment: soak seeds for 25 minutes in water at 50°C.
• Practise crop rotation.
• Weed thoroughly; make sure you remove members of the Solanaceae family in particular.
• Clear away crop debris.
• Apply copper or copper+maneb

Viruses

Tomato is very sensitive to virus diseases. A virus is a very tiny pathogen with a protein structure that is not visible with the naked eye or through an ordinary microscope. It is often spread in the plantation by insect vectors such as whitefly, thrips and aphids. The damage caused by the virus is usually much greater than the mechanical injury caused by the insect vector. Normally, plant tissue damaged by a viral disease does not die immediately. The most important symptom of viral infections is the light (white or yellow) colour of the leaves, or a mosaic pattern of light and darker shades of green on the leaves. In many cases, viral disease leads to dwarfed growth, rosette formation or other strange stem and leaf deformations. The symptoms of viral infections are often not found everywhere in a cultivated field, as is usually the case with fungal or bacterial diseases. It is always possible to find a number of plants that show no signs of the disease.

Viruses reported on tomato crops include:

• Tobacco mosaic virus or tomato mosaic virus (TMV)
• Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)
• Tobacco etch virus (TEV)
• Potato virus-Y (PVY)
• Potato leafroll virus (PLRV)
• Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
• Pepper veinal mottle virus (PVMV)
• Chilli veinal mottle virus (CVMV)
• Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV)
• Tomato Big-Bud mycoplasma (TBB)
• Tobacco mosaic virus

TMV causes severe damage to tomato crops. The symptoms include yellow-green spotted leaves, rolled-up leaves, stunted growth and discolouration of fruits. Machinery or workers transmit the virus mechanically to healthy plants. Seeds transmit the virus.

Control measures include:

•  Use pathogen-free seed and destroy infected plants.
•  Do not grow other Solanaceae near the field.
•  Use resistant varieties.

Cucumber mosaic virus

CMV causes stunting in tomato plants. Leaves may show a mild green mottling or more shoestring symptoms in which the leaf blades are greatly reduced. Fruits are small in size and often misshapen. CMV is transmitted by different aphid species. Aphids usually introduce the virus into a tomato crop from weeds or neighbouring crops. Control of the vector is important to prevent CMV epidemics:

• Grow resistant varieties.
• As CMV has a broad host range, it is important to eliminate weeds and ornamental plants that harbour the virus.
• Remove and destroy infected individual plants as this helps to limit the virus spread within the field.

Tomato spotted wilt virus

TSWV is an economically important tomato disease in the tropics. Infected plants are stunted and display yellow leaves. Fruits show characteristic green, yellow and red, slightly raised bulls-eye rings. TSWV is transmitted by several thrips species. It is important to:

• Eliminate thrips and host plants to prevent the disease.
• Locate tomato crops as far away as possible from flower fields.

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus

TYLCV occurs worldwide. Infected plants are erect and stunted. Leaves are yellow and curl upward or downward. An entire yield can be destroyed if plants are infected in the nursery. Whitefly transmits TYLCV.

Common control measures:

• Use tolerant varieties.
• Use reflective plastic mulch.
• Protect seedlings with a net in the nursery.
• Control the insect vector.

TMV

TOMATO SPOTTED WILT

TOMATO LEAF CURL

Fungi

Fungi are organisms that usually consist of filaments (hyphae). Clusters of hyphae (mycelium) are visible with the naked eye and look like very fine cotton wool.

The most important fungal infections in tomato are described below.

 

Early blight (Alternaria solani)

This fungus can be found everywhere, and its effect is most serious in humid and hot climates. It is spread via seed, wind, rain and infected plant remains. Plants that have been damaged are more susceptible to this fungus. Round, brown spots (with concentric rings) appear on the leaves, reaching a diameter of 1.5 cm. Sometimes small lumps can be found on the stem or on leaves, causing leaves to turn yellow and wilt. Flowers and small fruit fall off. Major control measures:

• Use tolerant varieties.
• Remove and burn damaged plant parts.
• Weed regularly and thoroughly.
• Use pathogen-free seeds.
• Adopt crop rotation.
• Make sure the plants have enough water.
• Do not plant young plants near older plants.
• Apply effective fungicides like Mancozeb, Ridomil etc @2.5g/l of water.

Late blight (Phytophthora infestans)

This fungus can be found in all regions of the world, but is more common in highlands or in cool humid conditions in lowlands. The fungus is usually spread via crop remains. Dark, watery marks with a yellow spot on the inside are visible on the leaves. Sometimes the marks start at the edge of the leaf and spread inward, sometimes the spots spread from the centre of the leaf outward. On the underside of the leaves, the spots are white. The stems and fruit can be affected also. Fruit gets brown spots and the leaves wilt. The signs of late blight become visible early in the growing season. Measures that can prevent late blight:

• Use tolerant varieties.
• Weed regularly and thoroughly.
• Remove and burn affected plants and plant debris.
• Do not plant young plants near older plants.
• Apply mulch on seedbeds, so that less watering is needed.
• Avoid planting tomato near potato crops.
• Increase aeration by staking and removing affected leaves.

Fusarium wilt (F. oxysporum)

From the bottom up, leaves wilt, turn yellow and curl at the edges. A brown stain can be seen if the stem or roots are cut. The plant may wilt on only one side or on a leaf, while the other half or rest of the plant remains healthy for a long time. Pink fungus fluff is found on dead plant parts. Measures to help control Fusarium wilt.

• Use resistant or tolerant varieties.
• Adopt crop rotation.
• Remove and burn affected plants.
• Minimise the watering schedule. To prevent the soil drying out apply mulch on the seedbed.
• Decrease the acidity of the soil by applying calcium.

Early blight

Late blight

Fusarium wilt

CULTIVATION OF BRINJAL

 

  Ø  General Description

• History, Geographic Origin and Distribution
• Ø  Food (Nutritive) Value
• Ø  Flowering, pollination and fruit setting
• Ø  Botanical Feature
• Ø  Soil and Climate
• Ø  Varieties
• Ø  Field Preparation
• Ø  Sowing Time
• Ø  Seed Rate
• Ø  Rising of Nursery
• Ø  Transplanting
• Ø  Irrigation
• Ø  Inter-Culture and Weed Control
• Ø  Harvesting and Marketing
• Ø  Yield
• Ø  Insect and Pest of Brinjal
• Ø  Major Diseases of Brinjal
• Ø  Bt Brinjal

 

 

CULTIVATION OF BRINJAL

Common Name: - Eggplant, Aubergine, Baingan

Botanical Name : - Solanum melongena L. 

Family : - Solanaceae

Chromosome No : - 2n = 2x = 24

Origin : - India

• General Description: -

            Brinjal or eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is an important solanaceous crop of sub tropics and tropics. The name brinjal is popular in Indian subcontinents and is derived from Arabic and Sanskrit whereas the name eggplant has been derived from the shape of the fruit of some varieties, which are white and resemble in shape to chicken eggs. It is also called aubergine (French word) in Europe. The brinjal is of much importance in the warm areas of Far East, being grown extensively in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China and the Philippines. It is also popular in Egypt, France, Italy and United States. In India, it is one of the most common, popular and principal vegetable crops grown throughout the country except higher altitudes. It is a versatile crop adapted to different agro-climatic regions and can be grown throughout the year. It is a perennial but grown commercially as an annual crop. A number of cultivars are grown in India, consumer preference being dependent upon fruit colour, size and shape.

            The varieties of Solanum melongena L. display a wide range of fruit shapes and colours, ranging from oval or egg-shaped to long club-shaped; and from white, yellow, green through degrees of purple pigmentation to almost black. Most of the commercially important varieties have been selected from the long established types of the tropical India and China.

 

 

• History, Geographic Origin and Distribution: -

            Brinjal is considered a native to India where the major domestication of large fruited cultivars occurred. In “Origin of cultivated plants” published in 1886 De Candolle, stated that the species S. Melongena has been known in India from ancient times and regarded it as a native of Asia. Vavilov (1928) was of the opinion that its centre of origin was in the Indo-Burma region. Various forms, colours and shapes of brinjal are found throughout South-East Asia, suggesting that this area is an important centre of variation. A centre of diversity is believed to be in the region of Bangladesh and Myanmar (Former India-Burma border). Evidence to this was given by Isshiki et al (1994) based on the enzyme and morphological variation noticed in large germplasm collection from India. According to Zeven and Zhukov sky (1975), it originated in India but spread eastward and by the 5^th century B.C. was in China, which became a secondary centre of variation. Thus, it has been known for the last 1500 years in China. Arabic traders were responsible for subsequent movement to Africa and Spain. Brinjal cultivation in the Mediterranean region is relatively recent. Portuguese colonies took it to Brazil. It is now widely cultivated for its fruits in the tropical, subtropical and warm temperate zones, especially in Southern Europe and the Southern United States. Sampson (1936) suggested the African origin of this crop, but there is no evidence that S. melongena is native there though there are spiny African brinjal plants.

• Food (Nutritive) Value: -

            Nutritional value per 100g (3.5oz), Energy 102 kJ (24kcal), Carbohydrates 5.7 g, Sugars 2.35 g, Dietary fibre 3.4g, Fat 0.19 g, Protein 1.01g, Thiamine (vit.B1) 0.039mg (3%), Riboflavin (vit.B2) 0.037 mg (3%), Niacin(vit.B3) 0.649 mg (4%), Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.281 mg (6%),Vitamin B6 0.084 mg (6%), Folate (vit. B9) 22 μg (6%),Vitamin C 2.2mg (3%),Calcium 9mg (1%),Iron 0.24 mg (2%), Magnesium 14 mg (4%), Manganese 0.25 mg (12%), Phosphorus 25 mg (4%),Potassium 230 mg (5%),Zinc 0.16 mg (2%).

            Leaves contain more vitamin C than that of fruits. Pigmented, dark purple brinjal has more vit C than that of white. Dry fruit is reported to contain goiterogenic principal.

• Ø Flowering, pollination and fruit setting: -        

            Brinjal is self pollinated crop but cross pollination also occur in it. This is because of heterostyly which favour cross–pollination. 60-70% fruit setting happens through pollination by insects while 30-40% is by selfing.

• Ø Botanical Feature: -

            Brinjal or eggplant is a herbaceous annual with erect or semi spreading habits. It is a perennial plant but cultivated as annual. It develops into bushy plants with large, fuzzy leaves that grow to a height of about 60 to 120 centimeters. The plant is erect, compact, and well branched. It has a rather fibrous or lignified root system. The leaves are large, simple, lobed and alternate on the stems. The stems, leaves, and calyx of some cultivars are spined.

            The botanical features of various plants parts of brinjal are as under:

Leaves

            The leaf pattern is mostly opposite, large, single lobed and the underside of the most cultivars is covered with dense wool like hairs. The leaves may be with or without spines at the midrib portions. The leaf blade and tip angle is very acute to very obtuse. Inflorescence is often solitary but sometimes it constitutes a cluster of 2 - 5 flowers. This character is dependent on the variety or hybrid.

 

 

Flower

            The flowers are large, violet-colored and either solitary or in clusters of two or more (Lawande and Chavan 1998). Flower is complete, actinomorphic and hermaphrodite. Calyx is five lobed, gamosepalous and persistent with or without spines depending on the cultivar types. It forms a cup like structure at the base. Corolla is five lobed gamopetalous with margins of lobes incurved. There are five stamens which are free and inserted at the throat of corolla. Anthers are cone shaped, free and with apical dehiscence. Ovary is hypogynous, bicarpellary, sycarpous and with basal placentation. Four types of flowers have been reported depending on the length of styles, viz. (i) long styled with big ovary, (ii) medium styled with medium sized ovary, (iii) pseudoshort styled with rudimentary ovary and (iv) true short styled with very rudimentary ovary.

Fruit

            The fruit is pendent and is fleshy berry borne signally or in clusters. The shape of fruit varies from ovoid, oblong, obovoid, or long cylindrical. The colour of the mature fruit varies from monocoloured purple, purple black, yellowish, white, green and variegated types of purple with white stripes, green with light green / white stripes or even combination of three colours.

Seeds

            The seeds are borne on the fleshy placenta and the placentae with the seeds completely fill the locular cavity. The number of seeds per fruit varies from few (50) to many. The seed color is white, light yellow, brownish yellow, brown to black brown for different varieties.

• Soil and Climate: -

            The brinjal can be grown in all types of soil varying from light sandy to heavy clay. Light soils are good for an early yield, while clay-loam and silt-loam are well suited for higher yield. Loam and sandy soil of normal and higher status are best suited for brinjal cultivation. The soil should fertile and well drained. Brinjal is very hardy crop and can be grown even in adverse conditions like in soil having high pH Brinjal has great adoptability.

            The brinjal is a warm season crop, therefore susceptible to severe frost. Low temperature during the cool season causes deformation of fruits. A long and warm growing season is desirable for successful brinjal production. Cool nights and short summers are unsuited to satisfactory yield.  A daily mean temperature of 13°C to 21°C is most favourable for optimum growth and yield. The brinjal seed germinate well at 25°C. 

• Ø  Varities:-

Long Varieties: -  

1) Pusa Purple Long: It is extra early variety, becomes ready for picking in about 75-80 days after sowing during autumn-winter season and takes 100-110 days during spring-summer season. After normal transplanting it becomes ready for picking in about 45 days. It is a selection from a mixed batia variety commonly grown in Punjab, Delhi and Western Uttar Pradesh. It has semi-erect to bushy habit, me3dium in height. Fruits are long, slender, purple, and glossy, 25-25 cm long tend to drop drown and touch the ground. It is heavy yielder. Average yield is 300 q/ha.

2) Pusa Purple Cluster: A medium- early variety, developed at IARI. New Delhi, Fruits are 10-12 cm long, deep purple in colour and borne in clusters of 4-9 suitable for southern and northern hills, moderately resistant to bacteria wilt.  

3) Azad Kranti: A variety identified in 1983 from Kalyanpur. Fruits are uniformly thick, oblong, 15-20 cm long, dark purple with a shining green colour and less seeded.

4) Arka Keshev: Fruits 18-20 cm long, 5-6 cm in diameter and dark purple. They are bright, soft and contain less seed. Yields 300-400 q/ha

5) Arka Shirish: Fruits are very long, soft, thick, attractive and light green in colour. Seeds are absent or very less in half fruit towards the stalk. Flesh is nutritive. It yields 380 q/ha.

6) Pusa Hybrid-5: Plants are vigorous, non-spiny, with semi-erect branches. Fruits are long, glossy attractive, dark purple with partially pigmented peduncle weighing about 100 g each. It takes 80-85 days from sowing to first picking. It is an early hybrid and high yielding (510q/ha).

Round Verities: -

1) Pusa Purple Round: It was developed at IARI, New Delhi, Each weighs 137g. It is tolerant to little leaf and shoots and fruit borer.

2) Pant Rituraj: A cross of T-3 × PPC from Pantnager. Fruits are almost round, attractive purple in colour, soft, less seeded and endowed with good flavour. Average yield is 400q/ha. It possesses field resistance to bacterial wilt.

3) Punjab Bahar: It is a thorn less variety developed mainly for cultivation in the spring season. Fruit dark purple with shining surface each weighing 200-300g.The fruit is plumpy and contains less seeds.

4) Arka Kusumaker: An improvement over the local collection (IIHR-193) from Karnataka. Fruits small, long, borne in clusters of 5 to 7, good in texture and cooking qualities and skin light green. Average yield is 330 q/ha.

5) T-3: It was developed at Kanpur through selection from S-16. Fruits round, light purple with whitish green colour at stigmatic end. It is moderately resistant to little leaf and bacterial blight.

 

Oval Varieties: -

1) Arka Navneet (F1): A cross between IIHR 22-1×Supreme from Bangalore. Fruits are oval- round and free from bitterness. Fruit skin attractive, deep purple, Flesh soft and while with few seeds. Yield is 650- 700 q/ha.

2) Pusa Uttam: Plants are semi-upright, vigorous, well branches and free of spines. Mature plants appear green with occasional light pigmentation on growing shoots. Flowers appear in clusters. Fruits pendent, oval, large sized, glossy with dark purple skin and green peduncle. The bearing habit is solitary and single fruit weight 250-300 g. Average yield is 400 q/ha.

3) Dudhia: - Fruits are oval, oval, milky white, shining and attractive. Most are suitable for winter season cultivation. Fruits are specially suitable for the preparation of Bhurta.

4) BH-2(F1): Plants is medium, erect, spreading and thorn less with green and purplish leaves. Fruits are oblong and deep purple weighing 300 g, It is highly suitable for cooking as Bhurta. It is tolerant to borer.

• Field Preparation: -

            Since the crop remain in the field for a number of months. The soil should be thoroughly prepared by ploughing 4 to 5 times before transplanting the seedlings. Bulky organic manures like well rotten crowding or compost should be incorporated evenly on the soil.

• Manure and Fertilizers: -

            Brinjal is a heavy feeder crop. Therefore a balance application of manure and fertilizers is very important for important for successful crop production. Further the brinjal being a long duration crop requires a good amount of manure and fertilizers. Well rotten farmyard manure or compost (200-250 q/ha) should be incorporated at the time of field preparation. The crop should be supplemented with 100-120 kg nitrogen and 50-60 kg each of phosphorus and potash hybrids requires more amount of fertilizers. Full dose of phosphorus and potash and half of N is applied at the of final field preparation before transplanting and the remaining quantity of N as urea is applied in two to three splits after 30, 45 and 60 days of transplanting in the farm of top dressing. 

• Sowing Time: -

            The time of sowing of seed and transplanting of seedlings varies according to the agro-climatic regions. In the plants of Northern India, there are generally two sowing season’s vez, June to July for autumn crop and November for the spring- summer crop month of April. In South India, the brinjal can be grown round the year, the main sowing being done during July to August. In the hills, the seeds are sown in March to April and seedlings are transplanted in May.

• Seed Rate: -

            (a) Pure line Varieties: - 500-750 g/ha

            (b) Hybrids Varieties: - 250 g/ha

• Rising of Nursery: -

            Block of 3 m length, 1.0 m wide and 0.15 m Height are prepared. Add 15 kg well rotten farmyard manure in each bed. A small quantity of super phosphate may be used. Drench the nursery beds each captan (2 g/kg seed) if not treated already. Sow the seeds 1 cm deep in rows 5 cm apart. Cover the seeds with the mixture of well rotten manure and fine soil and press it well. Cover the beds with wheat husk or clean dry grass.

            Do watering with fine rose-can in morning and evening. Water stagnation in bed causes damping off. Remove the water husk or dry grass after the seeds have germinated. Spray the seedlings with Captan (2g/ litre water) when they are 15 days old to control the spread of viral and fungal disease. After the break of monsoon, drench the soil around seedlings with Captan (1g/litre water) as a precaution against damping off disease. Germination of seeds and growth of plants in nursery slow because of low temperature during November- January. The seedlings should be protected from cold winds and frost by proper covering. The small low cost playhouses may be used to raise the seedling in the winters.

• Transplanting: -

            The seedlings are ready in 4-5 weeks for transplanting, when they attained a height of 12-15 cm with 3-to 4leavess. Harden the seedlings by withholding irrigation. Uproot the seedlings carefully without injury to the roots. Transplanting should b e done during evening hours followed by irrigation. Firmly press the soil around the seedlings. Spacing depends upon the fertility status of soil, type of verities and suitability of the season. In general 60×60 cm spacing is kept for non-spreading type verities and 75-90×60-75 cm for spreading type varities.

• Irrigation: -

            Irrigate the field as per the need of crop. Timely irrigation is quite essential for good growth, flowering, fruit setting and development of fruits. Higher yield may be obtained at optimum moisture level and soil fertility conditions. In plains irrigation should be applied every third to fourth day during hot weather and every 7 to12 days during winter. Irrigation is given before top dressing of there is no rain. The brinjal field should be regularly irrigated to keep the soil moist during frosty days.

• Inter-Culture and Weed Control: -

            The weeds should be controlled as soon as they seen, either by traditional method of hand weeding and hoeing or by application of herbici8des. Frequent shallow cultivation should be done at regular intervals so as to keep the field free from weeds and to facilitate soil aeration and proper root development. The most serious weed in brinjal is the Orabanchae sp. It is root parasite and it should be controlled carefully .Gap filling should be done wherever needed during evening hours followed by irrigation .Pre- plant soil incorporation of Fluchloralin (1- 1.5 kg/ha) or Oxadiazon (0.5 kg/ha) and re-planting surface spraying of Alachlor (1-1.5 kg/ha) control the weeds of brinjal successfully.

• Harvesting and Marketing: -

            The brinjal fruits are harvested when they have developed a good colour and marketable size, are still immature, tender and have not lost culinary qualities. The attractive bright, glossy appearance having freshness and optimum size o fruit are qualities for good market price. The fruit harvested with stalk at joint where they are attached to the branch. Variety NDB 25 have soft joint and is easy to harvest while other need help of sharp instrument. Care is taken in avoiding injury to the branch. Frequency of harvesting is depend upon the size of fruit. Small sized furit are harvested more frequently than bigger heavier one. Fruits should be harvested in afternoon to avoid sun scalding. Fruits are sprinkled with water, to keep them fresh. They are packed in baskets for local market and poacked in cartoon for distance market.

• Yield: -  

            The yield varies from season to season, variety to variety and location to location. However, in general 250 to 500 q/ha of healthy fruits of brinjal can be obtained.                                       

• Insect and Pest of Brinjal: -

            Brinjal is attacked by a number of insect pests and nematodes during various stages of crop growth in most of the tropical countries including India. The extent of losses caused by these pests depends on season, variety, soil and other factors. Some of the important ones are briefly described below.

1) Brinjal fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis): -

            Fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) is the most destructive pest of brinjal. It is widely distributed in the Indian sub-continent and also in Thailand, Laos, South Africa, Congo and Malaysia.  It also Damages potato and other solanaceous crops. This pest is active throughout the year at places having moderate climate but it is adversely affected by severe cold (To improve this paragraph). The damage by this insect starts soon after transplanting of the seedlings and continues till harvest of fruits. Eggs are laid singly on ventral surface of leaves, shoots, and flower-buds and occasionally on fruits. In young plants, appearance of wilted drooping shoots is the typical symptom of damage by this pest; these affected shoots ultimately wither and die away.

Control

            a. Rogue out the affected plants and destroy them.

            b. Spray Carbaryl (0.1%) or Cypermethion (0.01%) as soon as attack is       seen and repeat the spray after 15 days.

2. Brinjal Fruit Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis): -

            The pest is polyphagous in nature. The full grown larvae are greenish with dark broken grey lines along the side of body. They measure about 35-45 mm long. The moth is large and brown with V-shaped speck and dull black border on the hind wings. The larvae are feed first on leaves and fruiting bodies and later on, they bore into the fruits, completely eating away the internal contents.

Control

            a. Spray the crop with Malathion (0.1%)or Monocrotophos (0.05%).

            b. Erecting pheromone traps @4/acre.

            c. Three spraying with carbaryl 3 g/l or    profenofos 2ml/l or   cypermethrin1 ml/l   at 10 day interval from 3 weeks after transplanting.

 

3.  Aphids (Lipaphis erysimi): -

            The nymphs and adults are louse like and pale greenish in colour. This pest is very active from December to March when various cruciferous and vegetable crops are available in the fields. The damage is caused by nymphs and adults by sucking cell sap from leaves, stems, inflorescence or the developing plants. They are seen feeding in large numbers, often covering the entire surface. Owing to feeding on cell sap, the vitality of plants is greatly reduced. The leaves acquire a curly appearance.

Control

            a. Spray the crop with Malathion (0.1%) or Monocrotophos (0.05%) or dimethoate 0.02 % or methyl demeton 0.02 % is effective.

4. Jassids (Amrasca bigutella): -

            The nymphs and adults are very agile and more briskly forward the side ways. Adults are about 3 mm long and greenish yellow during summer, acquiring a reddish tinge in the winter. Nymphs and adults remain in large numbers and suck the sap from the under surface of the leaves. While feeding, they inject the toxin saliva into the plant tissues. The leaves shows symptoms of hopper burn such as yellowing, upward curling, bronzing and even drying. The crop becomes stunted and often in highly susceptible varieties it cause complete mortality of the plants.

Control

            a. Spray carbaryl (0.1%) or Phoshamidon (0.04%) at 10 days interval.

 

 

5. Root Knot Nematodes: -

            These are the most common plant parasitic nematode (Meloidogyne spp. .i.e. incognita, javanica) in India and infestation of these nematodes is common in brinjal. The root knot nematode damage is more harmful to seedling than to older plants. These nematodes infest the roots and cause root galls. The affected plant becomes stunted and the leaves show chlorotic symptoms. Infestation of these nematodes greatly hampers the yield of the crop.

Control

            a. Deep summer ploughing.

            b. Follow crop rotation

            c. Grow resistant verities like Black beauty, Banaras Ginat.

            d. Incorporate Carbofuran or phorate @ 25 kg/ ha in the soil.

• Ø  Major Diseases of Brinjal: -

            Important fungal and bacterial diseases affecting the brinjal crop in India are as follows:

1. Little leaf – Phytoplasma

            Infection is initially observed in one branch and later the entire plant shows symptoms. Reduction in size of newly formed leaves is observed. Reduction in petiole length making the leaves appear to be sticking to the stem. Affected plants have narrow, soft, smooth and yellow shorter leaves.

            Internodes of the stem are also shortened. Mostly there is no flowering but if flowers are formed they remain green. Fruiting is rare, if any fruit is formed, it becomes hard, tough and fails to mature. Young fruit turns necrotic, get mummified and cling to the plant.

 

Control

            a. Tolerant variety: Pusa Purple Round, Pusa purple cluster and Arka             sheel.

            b. Destruction of affected plants.

            c. Eradication of Solanaceous weed hosts.

            d. Spray Methyl demeton, 2 ml/l or Dimethoate 2 ml/l

Fungal Diseases: -

1. Alternaria Blight (Alternaria spp.) : -

This disease causes characteristic spot on the leaf with concentric rings. Affected leaves may drop off. It may also infect fruits that turn yellow and may drop off prematurely.

Control

a. Follow long term crop rotation with non solanaceous crop.

b. Grow resistant varieties.

c. Provide proper drainage. 

d. Drench the soil with a mixture of Bavistin                                                      (0.1%).

2. Damping Off: -(Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia spp., Sclerotium spp., Sclerotinia spp.)

            Both the Pre-emergence and Post-emergence damping-off symptoms are seen in diseased state. The germinating seeds are infected by fungi at the initial stages. The infection later spreads to hypocotyls basal stem and developing roots. The Post-emergence damping off phase is characterized by infection of the young, juvenile tissues of the collar at the ground level. The affected seedlings become pale green and brownish lesions are found at the collar region, resulting in bottling and topple over of seedlings.

Control

            a. Avoid over-watering.

            b. Drench the beds with Capton or Thiram @0.4% at 5-7 days after germination.

            c. Fumigate the soil with Formalin (7%) by drenching 10-15 cm deep          soil.

            d. Give hot water treatment to seeds (52˚C for 30 minutes)

            e.Treat the seeds with Captan or Thiram @ 3g/kg seed.

Bacterial Diseases of Brinjal: -

1. Bacterial Wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum): -

            The characteristic symptoms include wilting of the foliage followed by collapse of the entire plant. The wilting is characterized by dropping and slight yellowing of leaves and vascular discolouration. Drying of plants at the time of flowering and fruiting are also characteristic to the disease condition. The infected cut stems pieces when dipped in water, a white milky stream of bacterial oozes coming out which is the diagnostic symptom for bacterial wilt.

Control      

            a. Follow crop rotation.

            b. Rogue out the infected plants and destroy them

            c. Raise nursery in disease free beds.

            d. Soil fumigation with Formalin at 7% before sowing.

            e. Seed treatment with Streptocycline (150 ppm) for 90 minutes.

Viral Disease

1. Mosaic: -

            Leaves of affected plants exhibit mottling with raised dark green areas. Blisters are formed on the leaves and size of leaves reduced. The virus is transmitted through seeds and by aphids.

Control

            a. Collect the seeds from virus free plants.

            b. Rough out the infected plants from the field.

            c. Spray Dimlethoate (0.05%) or Monocrotophos(0.05% at 10 days   interval.

Reference: -

1. Textbook of Vegetables, Tubercrops and Spices by S. Thamburaj and Narendra Singh.
2. Handbook of Horticulture by  K.L. Chadda.
3. Web Site - http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/cultivation-brinjal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bt Brinjal

            In spite of its popularity among small and resource-poor farmers, brinjal cultivation is often input intensive, especially for insecticide applications. Brinjal is prone to attack from insect pests and diseases, the most serious and destructive of which is the Fruit and Shoot Borer (FSB) Leucinodes orbonalis. FSB feeds predominantly on brinjal and is prevalent in all brinjal producing states. It poses a serious problem because of its high reproductive potential. FSB larvae bore into tender shoots and fruits, retarding plant growth, making the fruits unsuitable for the market and unfit for human consumption. Fruit damage as high as 95% and losses of up to 70% in commercial plantings have been reported.

            Farmers resort to frequent insecticide applications and biological control measures to counter the threat of FSB. However, since FSB larvae are concealed within shoots and fruits, the pest normally escapes insecticide sprays. Therefore farmers tend to over-spray insecticides, because they rely mainly on the subjective assessments of the visual presence of the pest. In addition to the financial cost associated with indiscriminate insecticide applications and its negative effects on the environment, high pesticide residues in vegetables and fruits pose serious risk to consumers’ health and safety.

            Although, several attempts have been made to develop resistant cultivars through traditional plant breeding, these have met with limited or almost no success. There are no existing brinjal varieties with adequate resistance to FSB in India. Accordingly, scientists have used biotechnology to develop a brinjal variety that can resist FSB attack.

 

 

India’s First Vegetable Biotech Crop

            FSB - resistant brinjal or Bt brinjal was developed using a transformation process similar to the one used in the development of Bt cotton, a biotech crop that was planted on 7.6 million hectares in India in 2008. Bt brinjal incorporates the cry1Ac gene expressing insecticidal protein to confer resistance against FSB. The cry1Ac gene is sourced from the soil bacterium Bacillusthuringiensis (Bt). When ingested by the FSB larvae, the Bt protein is activated in the insect’s alkaline gut and binds to the gut wall, which breaks down, allowing the Bt spores to invade the insect’s body cavity. The FSB larvae die a few days later.

            Bt Brinjal was developed by the Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company (Mahyco). The company used a DNA construct containing the cry1Ac gene, a CaMV 35S promoter and the selectable marker genesnptII and aad, to transform young cotyledons of brinjal plants. A single copy elite event, named EE-1, was selected and introduced into hybrid brinjal in Mahyco’s breeding program. Mahyco also generously donated the Bt brinjal technology to the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore and University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Dharwad. The event EE-1 was backcrossed into open-pollinated brinjal varieties. Mahyco also donated the technology to public research institutions in the Philippines and Bangladesh.

            Several other research institutions, both public and private have also been developing Bt brinjal using different genes. The National Center on Plant Biotechnology (NRCPB) has developed Bt brinjal varieties expressing the cryFa1 gene. The technology was subsequently transferred to companies including Bejo Sheetal, Vibha Seeds, Nath Seeds and Krishidhan Seeds. The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR) is also developing Bt brinjal using the cry1Ab gene. Scientists are also looking for ways to develop Bt brinjal in conjunction with other multiple and beneficial traits.

 

 

Climbing the Regulatory Ladder

            Bt brinjal is the first food crop under evaluation for commercial release in India. Since its development in 2000, the crop has undergone rigorous scientific evaluation to assess its food safety, environmental safety, human and animal health safety and biodiversity. Figure 1 summarizes the protocol followed for the regulatory approval of Bt brinjal.

Figure 1. Development and Regulation of Bt Brinjal in India.
(Adapted from Choudhary and Gaur, 2008, GEAC Dossier 2008, MOEF, 2008)

 Reference: -

1. 1.            https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/35/default.asp

CULTIVATION OF CHILLI

Botanical Name: Capsicum annum

Family: Solanaceae,

Cromosome No: 2n=24

Origin – Primary – Mexico,

    Secondary - Gautemala.

       India is the major producer, consumer and exporter of chili in the world Indian chili reach to over 90 countries in the world. In India chili is grown almost in all state. AP is major chili growing state, followed by Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Species

1. 1.    Capsicum annum.var fructescen
2. 2.    Capsicum annum.var pubenscen
3. 3.    Capsicum annum.var baccatum
4. 4.    Capsicum annum.var pendulum

The pungency of chilli is due to volite akoloid capscine & red colour due to capsanthine

Culinary uses-

In India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilli at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan; the Ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese. Chili is also an important ingredient in almost all curries and food recipes in the country. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time or may also be done by pickling. Dried chilies are often ground into powders.

Medicinal uses-

Capsaicin is a safe and effective topical analgesic agent in the management of arthritis pain, herpes zoster-related pain, diabetic neuropathy, post mastectomy pain, and headaches.

Nutritional Value -

Red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C and small amounts of carotene (Pro Vitamin A). Yellow and especially green chilies (which are essentially unripe fruit) contain a considerably lower amount of both substances. In addition, peppers are a good source of most B vitamins, and vitamin B6 in particular. They are very high in potassium, magnesium, and iron contain.

Cultivation:

• Climate and Soil -

Chili prefer warm and humid climate during early stage and dry weather towards maturity of the pods. It grows well up to 2000 m above mean sea level. It is a rainfed crop, grow in area receiving 75 to 100 cm of rainfall. In India chili is grown in summer and kharif season and chili does not withstand low temp. in winter. It grows well at temperature range of 20-30°C.

            It grows on many type of soil sandy to heavy soil. A well drained fairly light fertile loam with fair moisture holding holding capacity id ideal with pH ranging between 6 to 7

Varieties:

Sr. no	Name of Variety	Characteristics
1	Andhra Jyoti	G2 * Bihar variety
2	Puss Jwala	NP46A * Puri red
3	MDU1	Develop through mutation
4	Agni, HOE888,ARCH228	Develop using MS line
5	Punjab Surekha	Suitable for salad and drying
6	Solan Yellow	Developed at Solan, HP
7	Bhagyalaxmi	tolerant to pest and disease
8	4.CH-1	F1hybrid (yield- 249.4 q/ha)
9	Jawahar 218	Tolerant to leaf curl and fruit rot
10	3.Arka lohit
11	.Arka lohit-	Dual purpose, high pungent chili
12	Musalvadi	Tolerant to dieback and PM
13	Sindhur	Resistant to bacterial wilt
14	Pusa sadabahar	Resistant to T.M.V, C.M.V

 

 

 

 

 

                

Variety-Bhut jolokia                         Variety-Guntur

 

               

        Variety- Jayanti                              Variety- Kakrota F-1

  Flower of Chilli

Variety having thin pericarp, low seed content, and strong spike are suitable for dried chilli.

• Raising of seedling:

Time of sowing and transplanting varied according to temp, rainfall, etc 1.5 kg seed is enough for 1 ha. The seed are sown thinly in line spaced 5cm apart. After sowing sand and well decompose FYM is sprinkled over the seed. Then light watering is done, then mulching with paddy straw after sowing conserve the soil moisture. Seed will germinate in 6 to 8 days, seedling become ready for transplanting 40-45 days after sowing seed bed drenching with copper oxy chloride 15 days interval keep damping off under control.

• Spacing:

In Mahashtra& Karnataka - 75cm × 75cm

In Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu- 45cm × 45cm

For Rainfed areas- 90cm × 20cm

• Manure & Fertilizer:

The well rotten farm yard manure@ 25 to 30 ton/ha incorporated before transplanting. Heavy application of nitrogenous fertilizer increase vegetative growth and delay maturity, full dose of P 7 K & ½ dose of N should be applied 2 week after transplanting and remaining N top dressed after1 month. The recommended dose of NPK is 120:60:50 kg/ha.

• Irrigation & Interculture:

During the summer season irrigation on alternate day is essential, in AP& TN chili is grown as a irrigated crop, the spraying of anti - transparent is recommended to prevent the water loss from the plant surface, earthing up after 30 days of sowing is done.

 

• Weed control:

Weed is major problem in chili. Manual weeding is commonly done in chili. Spraying Tok-E-25 2lit/ha with one hand weeding helps to check the weed.

• Harvesting:

Flowering begins in 1 month after transplanting taking another month for green fruit, chili for vegetable purpose harvested at fully grown green stage, where as for dry chili it is harvested at red ripe stage.

Harvesting should be done at the right stage of maturity. Ripe fruits are to be harvested at frequent intervals. Retaining fruits for a long period on the plants causes wrinkles and colour fading. Soon after the harvest, the produce is to heaped or kept in clean gunnies for one day for uniform colour development for the pods. Sun-drying is the common practice in India. The preparation of drying floor differs from tract to tract. Levelled and compacted floor is to be made for drying. Fruits are spread on drying yards in layers of 81 Ocm. From the fifth day onwards, the produce is inverted on alternate days so that the pods in the lower layers are brought up to ensure quick and uniform drying. To avoid microbial activity and aflatoxin production, moisture in the dried pods should be brought down to 10%.

Since the produce is exposed to sun for 10-15 days on the open yards, it is likely to get contaminated with foreign matter. This also results in poor colour for the product due to bleaching effect of the sun rays. The produce can be dried within a period of 18 hours using air blown drier keeping temperature at 44-460C. This method not only saves time, avoids the drying operations for 10-15 days but also imparts deep red colour and glossy texture to the fruits. Solar drier and tray drier can be used. While drying, the produce can be covered with polythene sheets during night time to avoid dew deposition and resultant colour fading.

Grading is to be done to remove defective and discoloured pods. Packing is done in gunny bags, or jute boras.It is preferable to store dried chilli in refrigerated condition (cold storage) to retain colour.

• Yield:

Normally 2-2.5 ton/ha dry chili & 7.5-10 ton/ha of green chili are obtain, the yield of dry chili is less under rainfed condition 0.5-1.5 ton/ha as compare to irrigated condition 1.5-2.5ton/ha. About 100 kg of fresh ripe fruit yield 25 to 40 kg dry chili depending upon cultivar.

Dried chili generally contains 6% stalk, 40% pericarp & 54% seed. It should be store at 0”c with 95-98% relative humidity.

Physiological Disorder

1. 1.    Blossom end rot ­–

It is characterize by appearance of water soked spot on the blossom end of the fruit.

Causes –

Cause due to application of heavy irrigation or heavy fertilizer dose.

Control measure –

Avoid heavy fertilization or water application.

 

 

1. 2.    Sunscald –

Soft light colored & slightly wrinkled areas appear on fruit      surface later they become sunken.

Cause –

Expose to instance sun light.

 

Control –

Transplant the plant at close spacing.

Grow variety having abundant foliage.

Insect pests

1. 1.    Thrips (Scirothrips dorsalis )

Larve & adult suck the scp from leave buds & flower.

Control -

Spray Dimethoate 0.03% at 15 days interval.

1. 2.    Aphid (Aphis gosippii)

Suck the sap from tender shoot or leave.

Control –

Spray Methyl Dematon 0.025%

1. 3.    White Fly (Bemisia tabaccii)

                  Suck cell sap from growing leave.

Control-

Spray Melathion 0.1%.

Fungal Diseases

1. 1.    Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum)

Infected seedling topple down on ground, seedling are killed both at pre & post imergance stage.

 

Control-

Treat seed with thiram @ 2gm/kg seed, drenching with diethane M45 0.25%, avoid water stagnation.

1. 2.    Ripe fruit rot/Antracnose (Colletothricum capsici)

Black water soaked spot appear on leave & fruit which gradually turn brown to black in colour.

Control-

Spray Bavistin 0.1% and use disease free seedling for transplanting.

1. 3.    Bacterial leaf spot (xanthomonas vesicatoria)

Important characteristic of this disease is development of small dark and greasy spot on the leave, petiol and stem. And water soaked spot on the fruit

Control-

Seed treatment with hot water 52’cfor 25 min, remove affected plant and destroy weed host.

Viral Disease

1. 1.    Mosaic

Cause by T.M.V, chlorosis, motteling, green vein bending, ring spoting, thicking of leave, puckering and clustering of leave, stunting of plant, flower dropping & fruit deformities are frequently observed. Virus is transmitted by aphis cracivora.

 

 

 

Control-

Grow tolerant variety like Punjab-lal or gauhati-black, grow barrier crop like maize or Amuranthus to reduse the incidence or spray Phosphomidon 0.05% at 10 days interval to control vector.

1. 2.    Leaf curl-

It is charactarise by curling, twisting, & smalling of leave, the plant remain stunted & devoid of fruit, the vector is white fly.

Control-

Rougue out infected plant ,grow nursery in disease free area , apply phorate at 1.25 kg ai/ha in nursery.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cultivation of Sweet pepper

 

Botanical name - Capsicum frutescens (var.grossum)

Family- solanaceae

C.N. - 2n= 24

Origin – Tropical & subtropical “South America”. 

Introduction

Capsicum (Capsicum annuum L. var. grossum Sendt) commonly known as sweet pepper/bell pepper or Shimla mirch, is a member of the family solanaceae and considered as luxury vegetable being used in Pizza making throughout the globe. It’s gaining popularity among farmers due to its quick and high returns. Under open conditions, quality and productivity of the produce is poor, which reduces profit margins of capsicum growers. 

There is great scope for protected cultivation of sweet pepper and there is further need to develop IPM practices for management of insect-pests to reduce dependence on pesticide (Singh, et al., 2004).

Paprika or sweet pepper (capsicum) rarely known as bell pepper in India. It is now widely cultivated in temperate region .The crop is highly sensitive to environmental factors, thus mostly cultivated under polytunnels, glasshouses /under greenhouses as protected cultivation. In India, it is cultivated commercially in Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh and in some parts of Uttar Pradesh etc. It is specially liked for pungency, spicy taste, appealing colour adds to the food.

Botany & taxonomy  

C. frutescens is perennial sub-shrub, living 2-3 years , blue anthers, milky greenish or yellowish white corolla and have two or more peduncles in a node. Fruits large with basal depression, inflated, red or yellow , flesh thick and mild, borne in cluster .

The genus Capsicum is member of family ‘solanaceae’ . There are many cultivars differ from shape, colour of fruits, pungency and position of fruits. Namely five var. cerasiforme, conoides, fasciculatum, grossum and longum. C.annum regarded – plants annual, fruits born singly.

C.frutescens regarded- plants perennial, fruits born in groups.

 

Composition

Peppers rich in vitamins A & C than tomatoes. The red peppers have different pigments  contain

Capsanthin- 36% of total caratenoid content

B-carotene & violaxanthin- 10% each

Cryptoxanthin & cupsorvbin- 6%

Cryptocapsin – 4%

Vit-C- 321mg/100gm fresh wt

Vit B₁& B₂- 0.02-0.1mg/100gm

Folic acid – 1.3-2.9mg/100gm

Nicotinic acid- 6-10mg

Water-92.4% & food value 29 calories/100gm

Protein- 1.2gm,Ca-11mg, Vit A- 870IU

Ascorbic acid- 175mg/100gm etc.

Greenhouse environment

Peppers more sensitive to environmental conditions than other solanacious crops. Optimum night and day temperature for quality fruit production is 22/21⁰C. (day/night). Air humidity best around 80%, The root zone temperature very important, it should be 22⁰C. Low root temperature increases risk of ‘pythium’.CO₂ conc. ranges 300-1100umol/mol on leaf conductance (g) and rate of crop transpiration (E).

Higher night temperature responcible for higher capsaicin content and Vit-C content of fruit decreased with increasing shade. Light intencity required for colour development of fruit. 

Maintenance of physiological parameters inside greenhouse for hybrid seed production in capsicum.

Temperature(0c)		Relative Humidity (%)	pH range
Day	Night
22-23	18-19	70-75	6-7

 

Growing structures

Various covering materials used when plants especially grown during winter months. Transperant polythene tunnels of 10m wide, 25m long and 3.5m tall are used. Red pepper seedlings  raised under (BCR) blue colour removing films because plant ht, no of leaves, leaf area, leaf dry wt, stem dry wt, root dry wt these all factors high in this film.

Other covering materials used as ethylene vinyl acetate(EVA), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) of plastic green houses on growth and development of sweet pepper. The highest yields & the highest no of fruits/plant were obtained under EVA (800g/plant leaves & 14.9 fruits/plants), PE (755g/plant & 11.7 fruits/pl).

Soil preparation using growing media

Various soil-less media used for soil preparation under high-tech nursery raising system. Such as 3 levels of rice straw 0.5,1.0 and 1.5 q/ acre .CO₂  conc. increased with more straw application. Bark substrates, cocopeats are used for sowing in trays, which improves physical properties of soil.

Nursery raising and planting in greenhouse-

For raising nursery, the high quality virus free seeds used for sowing. After sowing seeds must covered with thin layer (6mm) of fine grade medium and watered with fine spray. Sowing  cup trays covered with glass/plastic to avoiding drying out. Optimum temperature 24-25⁰C required for germination.

In 30 days, nursery ready for transplanting. Seedlings transplanted at 60 by 30cm spacing ,around 4200-4300 seedlings/1000m² are required. Transplanting should be done in evening and nursery sprayed with systemic insecticide  like confider/ metasystox @ 0.5 ml/lit.

Commercial varieties-             

Varieties yield according to purpose in respect of size, shape, colour of fruit. Thick fleshed cultivars best for roasting & cooking while thin fleshed for salad Purpose. Green & violet have strong flavour while yellow, red & orange coloured are milder and sweeter .  varieties suitable for greenhouse cultivation are follows .

Nun -3020(yellow),  Nun-3019(red), Bharat , Mahabharat (both red), Golden summer(yellow), Bombay (red), Indra (red), Heera(red), Tanvi (yellow), Jaimini (red), Boyaton (yellow), Pusa Deepti (red), California wonder, Yolo wonder, King of north, Chinese giant, World beater, Bullnose .     

Exotic & indigenous varieties are follows                               

Europian var- Mazurka (red), Fiesta (yellow), Torkel (red), Parker (red).

Israeli var- HA 1195 (red), HA 1038, HA 988, HA 1931, HA 1589 etc.

Important Varieties with characters   

1)    California Wonder- use for market gardening, vigorous, fruits 3-4 lobbed, medium thick sweet flesh.

2)    Chinese Giant- vigorous, prolific bearer, thick flesh, skin is dark green in colour.

3)    World beater – plants are  upright , productive, fruits 4 lobbed, flesh thick, mild and sweet.

4)    Bharat – F₁ hybrid var. released by Indo- American hybrid seeds, Bangalore, resistant to tobacco mosaic virus, average fruit wt about 150g.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Identification of Some Capsicum Species

Image	Name	Country		Hotness		Length		Description
	Bell			0 SR		15 cm (6 in)		Cultivar group of large rectangular fruit without noticeable heat. The ripe fruit can be red, yellow, green, orange, white, purple, blue, or brown depending on the specific cultivar.
	Cayenne	French Guiana		30,000 - 50,000 SR		12.5 cm (5 in)		Long, thin fruit that was transported by the Portuguese to China and India, where it is used widely. Often dried and ground into powder.
	Cherry			3,500 SR		2.5 cm (1 in)		Named for the fruit it resembles, this cultivar's fruit is small, red, and round. It is typically used fresh, or pickled and jarred, and is often used to stuff green olives. It is also called pimento.
	Jalapeño	Mexico		2,500 - 8,000 SR		9 cm (3.5 in)		Very popular, especially in the United States. Often pickled or canned. A smoke-dried ripe jalapeño is referred to as a chipotle.
	Shishito	Japan
	Mirasol	Mexico
	Macho	Mexico
	Bhut Jolokia		up to 1,500,000 SR		6 cm (2.4 in)		Cultivar that originated in Northeast India and was once confirmed by Guinness World Records to be the hottest pepper. It is an interspecies hybrid, largely C. chinense with some C. frutescens genes (see Naga jolokia)

 

 

Irrigation & fertigation-

Greenhouse sweet peppers grown under drip irrigation system. Drip lines (16:2:30) of 20mm diameters laterals, 2 lit discharge of water per dripper/ha and 30cm distance between two drippers and two drip lines laid down on  each bed at 60-65 cm distance depending upon bed size. Irrigation should be given weekly interval during sep-oct, this interval increased 10-12 days during winter till 1^st week of march. In April interval is reduced, i.e twice a week up to may-june.

Fertilizer application with irrigation i.e 5mg N, 3mg P & 6mg K /lit of water solution is prepared. Ca defficiency may cause ‘blossom end rot’ in peppers for that calcium nitrate applied, other micronutrients MgSo_4, ZnSo₄ apply with solution.

Water/Fertilizer	Fruit Setting	Fruit Set to Harvest	After first Harvest & each Harvest
Irrigation (m3/1000m3/Day)	2.0-2.5 m3	2.5-3.0 m3	2-2.5 m3
Nitrogen (PPM/m2 of water)	80-100PPM	120-150 PPM	100-120 PPM
Phosphorus (PPM/m3 of water)	50-60 PPM	75-100 PPM	50-60 PPM
Potash (PPM/m3 of water)	100-120 PPM	120-150 PPM	100-120 PPM

 

 

Pollination     

Peppers are predominantly self pollinated crop, however cross pollination takes place in activity of honey bees, Thrips , other insects. Bumble bee fly use for pollination results no of seeds/fruits increases and fruit enlarges faster.

Inducing fruit set

When light intencity is proper fruit setting takes place. Most practical way of facilitating fruit set by dropping night temp to 18⁰C and 20-22⁰C day temp, root temp around 18⁰C. Adjustment of temperature required for fruit setting. CO₂ conc. i.e. 700-1000 ppm, high light & low day temperature increases fruit setting.

Fruit load & fruit growth

Peppers can hold fruits up to certain extent as there is excess fruit load may cause decaying of roots. The no of fruits/plant depends on light, temperature & plant size. In poor light condition plant can support 10-12 fruits/m² and in good light condition over 20-24 fruits /m^{2 .}

Training & pruning

Pepper plants initially developed single stem and after 9-13 leaves terminal flower developed, where main stem devides in to two. The crown buds on two main stem are removed, these two main stem are maintained on each plant after pruning/pinching. Two stems trained upon string to main wires running on row length 8-9 feet height.

The stems either loosely trellised or bound around strings, stem clipped with strings using rings/ plastic clips. Plant will continue produce terminal flowers and two side shoots at each internode. It should be done in 2-3 weeks during period of fast growth, crop can be grow up to 8-9 feet ht in 9-10 months.

Mulching

Transparent black mulch fevourable for maintaining soil temperature, vegetative growth of plant, no. of leaves, main branches almost doubled. Loss of heat energy at night and ensure higher soil temperature during day is maintained. Highest fruiting is recorded in fruiting period.

Harvesting, Post harvest shelf life & storage-

Fruits are harvested early in morning, by scissors to get smooth stem end cut and minimizing damages to fruits. Coloured fruits harvested once-twice in week and green fruits once in fortnight.

Changing relative humidity during day and night about 90-95% improves shelf life of fruits. Harvested fruits stored at 8-10⁰C in 90% R.H for 15-20 days. To avoid moisture loss and brusing during transit, waxing of peppers is common practice.

Yield

On an average 60-70 tonnes of coloured fruits and 100-120 tonnes of green fruits plants/ha under greenhouse condition.

Major diseases of greenhouse Capsicum:

Diseases of bell pepper under protected cultivation conditions and their management.

(Gupta et. al, 2005) conducted greenhouse experiment to record the incidence and severity of various bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) diseases and their management. During cultivation, the crop was affected by powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. capsici) and Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora capsici). Among the diseases, powdery mildew was most severe with 84.17% disease severity. In the management of Fusarium wilt and powdery mildew, soil application of Trichoderma harzianum multiplied on neem cake (500 g/m2) and hexaconazole (0.05%) sprays, respectively, were found highly effective in reducing these diseases.

Plant health problems affecting capsicum crops can be divided into two groups: 1) pests and diseases that are caused by living organisms, and 2) disorders brought about by chemical or physical causes. Pests include insects and mites. Diseases are caused by pathogens including fungi, viruses, bacteria and nematodes. Disorders cover a variety of problems, like physiological disorders (e.g. sun scald, cracking, blossom-end rot), nutrient deficiency, nutrient toxicity, salt injury, cold injury, damage from pesticides (including herbicides) and damage from gases (ethylene, ozone). This is a brief overview of the main pest and disease problems in capsicums. powdery mildew is most severe disease with 84.17% disease severity.

Fungal Diseases - Affecting Roots

Pythium and Rhizoctonia: are two fungi causing damping-off of seedlings. They arise when plants are weak or under stress (too cold, too wet), also in older crops. Generally Pythium is more active at lower temperature, and Rhizoctonia at higher temperatures. Pythium thrives under wet conditions, also in hydroponics. Symptoms of Pythium are brown roots: while the inside root is rot, the root skin is still intact and can be easily removed. Rhizoctonia typically has brown lesions at soil level.

Phytophthora: infects the main root and the lower stem part. Later the above-ground stem part turns black and the plant wilts and decays. Phytophthora causes soft rot (watery rot). It spreads through soil and water. Infected plants must be removed carefully and good sanitation practices are required.

Fungal Diseases – Above Ground

Downy mildew: shows as a white fungal tissue on the lower side of leaves, and later also on the upper side. Early symptoms are light green spots on the upper side of the leaves (similar to spider mite symptoms). These spots grow and later cover the whole leaf until it falls off.

Sclerotinia: causes shoots to turn brown, often without others signs of fungal infection. When there is enough water, a dense white fungal tissue will develop. It can also affect fruit. Infected material must be removed. When the infection is serious, the soil or medium must be sterilised.

Viral Diseases

Capsicum plants can be infected by several viruses, including tomato (or tobacco) mosaic virus (mechanically transmitted) and tomato spotted wilt virus (transmitted by thrips). Viruses cannot be seen but are detected by plant symptoms which include mottling, distortion or discolouring (flecking, ring patters, mosaic) of leaves and fruit, and stunted or bushy plant shape. It may reduce the production and fruit quality.

A virus disease in the crop can not be cured. It is therefore important to prevent virus infection, or when it is detected, to reduce spreading. The new crop must be planted with all possible precautions. Always start from high-quality seed, as inferior seed is a major source of virus. Propagate the plants elsewhere in a greenhouse with insect screening, and have them arrive when your property is perfectly clean. After planting, be alert for the virus symptoms and have these identified. Any infected plant plus the neighbouring plants should be taken out, put in a plastic bag on the spot, and disposed carefully.

 

Diseases Caused by Bacteria

Several bacterial diseases may affect capsicums. They can cause soft rot, wilting, spots, deformation, leaf drop, and thus devastate the production and quality.

Transmission may be by seed, insects or mechanically. It is very difficult to control bacterial diseases in a crop. Prevention is the only viable approach and seedlings and young plants should be treated with full precautions to prevent bacterial diseases. See virus diseases above. Sometimes copper sprays can be helpful.

Diseases Caused by Nematodes

Nematodes are tiny worms normally living in the soil. Some of them may feed on plant roots. One species can cause small knots or galls on the roots of capsicum and other plants. Above ground symptoms may include stunting, yellowing, wilting, lack of vigour. Nematodes can be killed by good fumigation or steaming between crops, but this must be done after the roots are decayed.

Physiological disorders of greenhouse Capsicum:

Blossom end rot: High average leaf area per growing fruit seems to be the central factor inducing BER. Therefore, it is suggested to prune old leaves of sweet pepper plants as being practiced with other greenhouse crops.

Pests

Thrips: Small, long, thin, brown/black insects, with similar shaped larvae which are white/yellow. Thrips feed on flowers and on the lower side of the leaves, causing silver or grey-white spots with black faecal dots. Another symptom is small ‘warts’ on the lower leaf side, caused by egg deposition. High numbers of thrips will prevent flowers setting and can affect plant growth and reduce production. 

Two thrips pests are found on capsicums: onion thrips and western flower thrips. Both species can transmit tomato spotted wilt virus which can mark fruit and kill plants. Western flower thrips is resistant to most pesticides and for effective control it is important to know which thrips you have. Both thrips can be controlled by a predatory mite, Amblyseius cucumeris.

Two-spotted mite: These are tiny (0.5 mm) web spinning mites, coloured yellow brown with two dark marks on the sides. They feed on the lower side of the leaves, and cause very yellow feeding marks. In severe infestations whole leaves turn yellow and webbing will cover the plant. Successful biological control using the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis depends on finding infestations of the pest early and releasing the predator immediately. 

Broad mite and strawberry (or cyclamen) mite are so tiny that they are difficult to see, but they cause distinct virus-like symptoms (distortion of leaves) and can prevent new growth. If pesticides are used, the plant must be thoroughly wetted. Amblyseius cucumeris may control small infestations of these mites.

Aphids: Various aphids are fond of capsicum plants, especially the young leaves in the top of the plants. Symptoms of aphids include sticky honey dew, white empty skins on the leaves, and feeding injury in the form of curling leaf margins, yellow spots, and leaf distortion. Severe infection may cause leaf drop and as a result low production and sun scald on fruit. Aphids stain the fruit with their excrement and may transmit viruses.

 

Insecticides: Aphids are easily controlled with insecticides. Hence spraying of organ phosphorus insecticides like Dimethoate - 0.03 %, Phosphamidon 0.025%, Malathion 0.05 %, Diazion– 0.02%, Quinalphos – 0.025%.

Other control measures for greenhouse aphids:

 

Caterpillars: Green loopers are the commonest caterpillar damaging capsicum plants. The first signs of caterpillars are holes in the leaves. Large caterpillars may damage fruit. Green looper and tomato fruit worm are controlled effectively using a biological spray containing Bacillus thuringiensis toxins.

This is a selective and environmental-friendly spray. The most damaging and difficult to control caterpillar is the poroporo fruit borer, a native species that fortunately only occasionally gets in to crops. The white or pink caterpillars can be found in the fruit.

 

Whitefly: This is not a severe problem in capsicum. Adults and larvae feed on plant sap and excrete a sticky honey dew staining leaves and fruit. They can be controlled by a parasitic wasp.